Biotransformation

What is biotransformation? Biotransformation is defined as the series of chemical altercations of a compound occurring within the body as by enzymatic activity. What this means is that we are constantly taking in substances that are transformed by the body for its use. Biotransformation focuses on four areas of toxicokinetics. They are absorption, distribution, storage and elimination. First, absorption is when the drug leaves the administration point and enters into your blood stream.
We are constantly consuming different medications and drugs without considering what they could be doing or even how they can be affecting our bodies. Basically what is happening during biotransformation is that our bodies have a complicated process of your bodies goes through to metabolize medications. Furthermore what this is explaining is the ways in which our bodies are able to flush medication that we have previously consumed out of our system. If we did not have this process of biotransformation, the medication would not metabolize and therefore stay in our system for long periods  of time possibly causing people to experience severe health effects that could lead to unwanted problems.

It is important to take into account factors that can influence or have an effect on a individuals ability to metabolize medication properly and efficiently. This factors can consist of an individual’s family’s medical history, if the individuals is currently in a state of disease or illness, with that being said age and  sex play a role, and lastly how well the individual is eating, having a good nutritional diet. In addition to the factors that I just listed, there is a direct correlation between these factors and how effectively our bodies are able to carry out the biotransformation process. These factors can cause severe changes to the body.  This is crucial because if an individual is unable to correctly metabolize medication consumed, the substance will stay in the individual’s body causing possible harm.

Biotransformation is to make a medications within the body water-soluble, meaning that it will be easier to dispose and therefore leave the body. Our bodies perform biotransformation in many of our large organs. However the most commonly known organ that uses biotransformation is our liver. And this is because our liver has high concentrations of enzymes. With that being said, enzymes are facilitators that help with the rate at which the chemical reacts to the process of biotransformation. Furthermore there are two stage of this, categorized as phase 1 and phase 2.

When a parent drug comes in and passes through the liver, it is going through stage 1 that is referred to as modification. The process of modification occurs when a substance goes through one of three chemical reactions. These chemical reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis, or hydroxylation. The reactions can become familiarized or reveal a functional group to the substance called a metabolite.

Phase 2 is referred to as conjugation. Conjugation with endogenous molecules: glucuronic acid, sulfate, glutathione form covalent bonds. This creates a biosynthesis of polarity. Essentially this is important to understand because the more polar a compound is, the more water-soluble it is. This allows for speedy and efficient absorption and elimination.

IEUBK Model

The Integrated Exposure Uptake Biokinetic Model, otherwise known as the IEUBK  Model  is used to measure lead  in children to predict the risk of elevatedblood lead level due to exposure.  The model primarily focuses on children seven years or younger to test their blood lead level. The IEUBK model is easily accessible on the Environmental Protection Agency’s website. The model also help predict the risk that children are who are exposed to lead endure, high blood lead levels in children can result in serious health conditions. Furthermore, the IEUBK model is a tool used in determining the risk, and cleanup that needs to be done at sites that are contaminated.

The IEUBK model is a tool that provides its users with four modules that makes the process easier when calculating the levels of lead exposure in young children. These modules consist of the: exposure module, uptake module, biokinetic module, and lastly the probability distribution module.

The exposure module uses lead concentrations that is present in the environment and the rate at which a child can inhale or ingest the contaminated item or substance that a child can be exposed to. Exposure can come from soil, water, dust, and even ones diet. For example Dr. Moss examined pottery that many Hispanic cultures cook their meals in. However, the glaze on this dishes had extremely high lead levels. Therefore, as the food was cooking the glaze essentially seeped into the food causing exposure by ingestion and this was most likely over a long period of time.

The uptake module explains and modifies the lead intakerates by calculating the data collected by the exposure module.The biokinetic module is used to address the transfer of absorbed lead between blood and other tissue or organs within the body. Specifically this module assesses the different pathways or routes of exposure that lead can take in the body. Furthermore, how children’s exposure rates can be distributed to other locations in the body causing harm to the child’s health. The biokinetic module allows toxicologists to have a better understanding of the significance of exposure. Understanding the results involves a professional to have a known source that they can associate with the exposure to the specific part of the body.

When accessing the model there are instructions as to where to input the values collected into an equation. After inputting the results the program runs the complex equations so that it does not have to be measured by individuals, this eliminated the risk of human error.  Professionals use this tool to help determine blood lead levels. For example, in class Dr. Moss brought in different items that children often play with or use that had high lead levels. Additionally, when thinking about kids in this age group they are more likely than not going to put these items in their mouths, furthermore increasing the intake of lead. This can be very dangerous if the rate of exposure is drawn out.

The primary goal of the IEUBK model is to make sure that environmental exposures such as soil, water, and dust are at safe lead levels giving no more than a 5% chance of the child’s safety. Additionally, the model is very site-specific as opposed to other risk assessment tools or models that the Environmental Protection Agency uses. 

Citations:

https://www.epa.gov/superfund/lead-superfund-sites-frequent-questions-risk-assessors-integrated-exposure-uptake

Class handout - short sheet: Overview of the IEUBK Model for Lead in Children

Biological Poisons

What are biological poisons?  Biological poisons are also known as toxins. They are categorized into three groups. The first group is microbial toxins which are poisons produced by bacteria, blue/green algae to name a few, the second group are poisons that are produced by plants most commonly known as phytotoxins. Lastly, the third group is poisons produced by animals called zootoxins. There are many different varieties of poisonous plants and animals tend to be very prominent all over the world.

http://petsci.co.uk/health-care/poisoning

Poisons are substances that can be harmful to living organisms, if inhaled, ingested, injected or absorbed. Furthermore, most poisons act acutely which means that their toxic effects happen very quickly after exposure. Acute toxins should be registered based on the lethal dose. Many toxins are actually registered and classified due to their potential threat to human safety. Additionally, it is important to note that biological toxins are “classified separately fromchemical toxins.”   

Microbial poisons are created by bacteria, blue/green algae, and fungi. There are many problems that can happen to someone working with these organisms because there is a lack of knowledge concerning their biological nature. Furthermore, these plants have very diverse poisons so knowing what you have come in contact with can be extremely beneficial when being treated.

When thinking of biological poisons the first that comes to mind is spiders and snakes. Two species, that I am deathly afraid of. Venomous animal species are frequently described as poisonous and vice versa. With that being said, both types are toxic and can cause considerable harm to humans, however where these two differ is how the toxin is delivered. Poisons are often when a person ingests something where and can also be toxins absorbed through the skin when broken or touched.  Whereas, venom is injected into a person from a bite or sting.

http://www.stewart.army.mil/info/?id=524&p=3

Snakes are both extremely venomous and have the strongest venom. This is a protective mechanism for the snake, if they see something as a predator they can instantly inject the person or other animal with venom, that can lead to extreme illness or fatality.  It is suggested that between fifty thousand and one hundred thousand deaths are caused by snakes every year. The snakes responsible for the most deaths are the “Indian cobra, commonkrait, Russel viper and saw scaled viper.” 

Furthermore, there are ten species that are considered to be the most toxins. The list consists of the box jellyfish which is said one sting can be fatal unless treated right away. Another is the marbled cone snail, interesting? These guys hang out near the bodies of water specifically salt water, it uses its venom to catch prey.  According to the Guinness World Records the Brazilian wandering spider has the most powerful venom of any spider, and responsible for the most human deaths…scary. They are primarily go unseen however will appear in homes, hide in shoes and other surrounding areas. These spiders are so dangerous due to their wandering nature.  Lastly the puffer fish “pufferpoisoning causes the tissue of your lips and tongue to die, someone mayexperience raid heart rate and difficulty breathing.”

It is important for people to know what they are surrounded by or may one day come face to face with. Animals who produce venom and plants that sting can result in death if not taking care of immediately.  

Environmental Pollution

What are environmental pollutants? Environmental pollution is one of the greatest problems that we are facing.  Environmental pollution is defined as the “spread of contaminants into the environmentcausing harm.” Humans are a large contributing factor to environmental pollution, causing detrimental effects on our ecosystem. Pollution occurs when the atmosphere cannot process and counteract harmful substances. The main types of environmental pollution are air, water and soil.

Air pollution is the most harmful form in our environment. As I previously stated, human activities play a large impact on pollution. With that being said some of the biggest air polluters are, fossil fuels emitted by vehicles, factories or industries, and coal.

It is very common when driving down the road to see smog coming from smoke stacks this is not only causing harm to the environment but also the people living in close proximity. Although, some pollution is visible others are invisible. When we breathe in air we are inhaling possibly harmful particles that travel through our respiratory system. These particles can stick to the sides of the airway and therefore travel deeper into the lungs.

Water pollution is also a huge problem that our world is facing. There are many different contributing factors that play a role in water contamination. There are many factors that play into the contamination of water.  According to the World Health Organization “780 million people don’t have access tosafe drinking water.” One of the largest contributing factors to water contamination is the lack of proper sanitation facilities. Because of this in developing countries people will use the restroom anywhere. This can cause serious illness and possible fatality. Human waste is being disposed into our waterways on a daily basis, at high quantities. “Water pollution is all about quantities.” After flushing a toilet the contaminated water is sent to a treatment facility, however it is very common for the water to still be contaminated when released back into the waterways.

When walking around every day it is very common to see litter on the side of the road or in different bodies of water. Plastics are extremely hazardous to marine life, causing animal to choke. Another prime example of water pollution was the BP oil spill; this spill covered a vast area of the ocean and affected the aquatic life greatly.

It is important to note that these sources of pollution can occur simultaneously. For example, when it rains chemicals and fertilizers, can runoff into nearby waterways thereby causing the water to become contaminated. This can be very dangerous for aquatic life possibly eliminating the amount of oxygen they can get and therefore resulting in death. There are many preventative measures that can be taken to reduce pollution. Being aware of what you are contributing or the activities that you are doing is a start. Say you want to attend an event a few streets away, get out and walk or ride a bike instead of taking your car and contributing to the pollution.

This topic is very important and we should work toward eliminating or finding better ways to manage the pollution that is being created due to human activity. Environmental pollution presents a serious long term global problem. Pollution has extremely negative impacts on crucial things that the environment provides such as clean air and clean water, which are two things needed for survival.

Radon

What is radon? Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas. It is colorless, odorless, tasteless, and chemically inert. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention “individuals are always exposed to radon.”

Where does radon come from? Radon is formed by the natural radioactive decay of uranium in rock, soil, and water. Once produced, radon moves through the ground to the air about, some remains below the surface and dissolves in water that collects and flows under the grounds surface. With that being said, the primary route of exposure to radon is through inhalation and ingestion.

 

Radon has many different pathways to enter one’s home.  Radon is present in our water supply and soil. Radon can get into the air within ones home by entering through the cracks in the soil that is located underneath the foundation of the home. Air pressure in homes is lower than the pressure of air outside and in the soil. Due to the pressure difference suction occurs and that is how radon enters.

Furthermore, radon can be existent in a home’s water supply. This is true if your water supply is from groundwater such as wells. However, in comparison to radon in soil exposure to radon from your water supply is significantly lower.

What disease does it cause? Because radon is a naturally occurring gas we are constantly exposed to it this can cause serious health risks. One of the major risks that people are exposed to from radon is lung cancer. If a person consecutively inhales radon over a long duration of time the gas can become confined or trapped within the lungs.  “Radon is the second leadingcause of lung cancer.” Individuals who smoke are at higher risk of developing lung cancer if they are also exposed to radon. However, individuals exposed to second-hand smoke are also at high risk. As stated by the Environmental Protection Agency radon is “the number one cause of lung canceramong non smokers.”

There are preventative measures that can be taken to reduce the risk of exposure. Testing is the only way in which someone will know what their homes radon levels are at. Having testing done regularly is extremely important because people normally do not show symptoms right away. Symptoms only start to become apparent after years of exposure. Because this disease is virtually undetectable these tests can prevent health risks.

When testing for radon there are two main methods. The most common involves a passive device such as an activated charcoal test kit that collects radon gas atoms or an alpha track device that has a small strip of special plastic that is marked when hit by radon’s alpha particles.  Another device is called an electret which has a plastic disc with static charge; they are used only by professional radon inspectors. This is because of the expertise required and the expensive equipment needed for analysis. The second method is the use of an active device called a continuous radon monitor or a CRM. This device is mostly used by professional radon inspectors for short term radon testing during a real estate transaction. There a multiple makes and models of the CRM device and all require training to be used properly. The differences between the two testing methods are cost, and level of expertise needed for proper use.